Spatiotemporal expression patterns of ZBP1 in the brain of mouse experimental stroke model.

Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1) is a cytosolic nucleic acid sensor, functioning as a critical mediator of inflammation and cell death pathways. Since neuroinflammation could occur in response to damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), ZBP1 might be involved in neuroinflammation after stroke. However, the spatiotemporal expression profile of ZBP1 in the post-stroke brain remains to be elucidated. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the spatiotemporal expression patterns of ZBP1 in the post-stroke brain using a mouse photothrombotic stroke model. Real-time PCR assays showed that ZBP1 is induced on days 3-14 post stroke. ZBP1 immunoreactivity was observed in Iba1-positive microglia/macrophages in peri-infarct regions by immunohistochemistry. ZBP1-positive cells were spread in layers surrounding the infarct core by 7-14 days post stroke. Interestingly, ZBP1 immunoreactivity was also detected in CD206-positive border-associated macrophages (BAMs) in the meninges. Furthermore, ZBP1-expressing cells were positive for antibodies against inflammatory mediators such as Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), Toll/IL-1R domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-ß (TRIF), and receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1). Morphological analysis with confocal microscopy showed that the co-localization signals of ZBP1 and its adaptor, TRIF, are increased by glucose oxidase (GOx) treatment, which has been reported to induce mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) release. These results suggest that ZBP1 is induced in peri-infarct microglia/macrophages and may be involved in DAMPs-mediated neuroinflammation involving mtDNA in the post-infarct brain.

PFT-α protects the blood-brain barrier through the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway after acute ischemic stroke.

The dysfunction of blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a pivotal role in brain injury and subsequent neurological deficits of ischemic stroke. The current study aimed to examine the potential correlation between p53 inhibition and the neuroprotective effect of on the BBB. Rat middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion model (MCAO/R) and oxygen-glucose deprivation/re-oxygenation model (OGD/R) were employed to simulate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CI/R) injury occurrence in vivo and in vitro. mNSS and TTC staining were applied to evaluate neurological deficits and brain infarct volumes. Evans blue (EB) staining was carried out to examine the permeability of BBB. RT-qPCR and Western blot to examine the mRNA and protein levels. Cell viabilities were detected by CCK-8. Flow cytometry and ELISA assay were employed to examine apoptosis and neuroinflammation levels. TEER value and sodium fluorescein were carried out to explore the permeability of HBMEC cells. PFT-α inhibited P53 and promoted the expression of ß-catenin and cyclin D1, which were reversed by DKK1. PFT-α inhibited neurological deficits, brain infarct volume, neuroinflammation, apoptosis, and BBB integrity than the MCAO/R rats; however, this inhibition was reversed by DKK1. PFT-α promoted OGD/R-induced cell viability in NSCs, and suppressed inflammation and apoptosis, but DKK1 weakened the effect of PFT-α. PFT-α increased OGD/R-induced TEER values in cerebrovascular endothelial cells, inhibited sodium fluorescein permeability, and increased the mRNA levels of tight junction protein, but they were all attenuated by DKK1. PFT-α protects the BBB after acute ischemic stroke via the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, which in turn improves neurological function.

Serum neurofilament light chain, brain infarcts, and the risk of stroke: a prospective population-based cohort study.

Neurofilament light chain (NfL), a neuron-specific protein, has been related to several neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, elevated levels of NfL have also been observed in patients admitted to the hospital for stroke, suggesting that NfL as a biomarker may extend well beyond neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, using data from the Chicago Health and Aging Project (CHAP), a population-based cohort study, we prospectively investigated the association of serum NfL levels with incident stroke and brain infarcts. During a follow-up of 3603 person-years, 133 (16.3%) individuals developed incident stroke, including ischemic and hemorrhagic. The HR (95%CI) of incident stroke was 1.28 (95%CI 1.10-1.50) per 1 standard deviation (SD) increase of log10 NfL serum levels. Compared to participants in the first tertile of NfL (i.e., lower levels), the risk of stroke was 1.68 times higher (95%CI 1.07-2.65) in those in the second tertile and 2.35 times higher (95%CI 1.45-3.81) in those in the third tertile of NfL. NfL levels were also positively associated with brain infarcts; 1-SD in log10 NfL levels was associated with 1.32 (95%CI 1.06-1.66) higher odds of one or more brain infarcts. These results suggest that NfL may serve as a biomarker of stroke in older adults.

Effects of Three Different Doses of Inter-Alpha Inhibitor Proteins on Severe Hypoxia-Ischemia-Related Brain Injury in Neonatal Rats.

Hypoxia-ischemia (HI)-related brain injury is an important cause of morbidity and long-standing disability in newborns. We have previously shown that human plasma-derived inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (hIAIPs) attenuate HI-related brain injury in neonatal rats. The optimal dose of hIAIPs for their neuroprotective effects and improvement in behavioral outcomes remains to be determined. We examined the efficacy of 30, 60, or 90 mg/kg of hIAIPs administered to neonatal rats after exposure to HI for 2 h. Postnatal day 7 (P7) Wistar rats were exposed to either sham-surgery or unilateral HI (right carotid artery ligation, 2 h of 8% O2) brain injury. A placebo, 30, 60, or 90 mg/kg of hIAIPs were injected intraperitoneally at 0, 24 and 48 h after HI (n = 9-10/sex). We carried out the following behavioral analyses: P8 (righting reflex), P9 (negative geotaxis) and P10 (open-field task). Rats were humanely killed on P10 and their brains were stained with cresyl violet. Male extension/contraction responses and female righting reflex times were higher in the HI placebo groups than the sham groups. Female open-field exploration was lower in the HI placebo group than the sham group. hIAIPs attenuated these behavioral deficits. However, the magnitude of the responses did not vary by hIAIP dose. hIAIPs reduced male brain infarct volumes in a manner that correlated with improved behavioral outcomes. Increasing the hIAIP dose from 30 to 90 mg/kg did not further accentuate the hIAIP-related decreases in infarct volumes. We conclude that larger doses of hIAIPs did not provide additional benefits over the 30 mg/kg dose for behavior tasks or reductions in infarct volumes in neonatal rats after exposure to severe HI.

Characterization of Astrocytes in the Minocycline-Administered Mouse Photothrombotic Ischemic Stroke Model.

Astrocytes, together with microglia, play important roles in the non-infectious inflammation and scar formation at the brain infarct during ischemic stroke. After ischemia occurs, these become highly reactive, accumulate at the infarction, and release various inflammatory signaling molecules. The regulation of astrocyte reactivity and function surrounding the infarction largely depends on intercellular communication with microglia. However, the mechanisms involved remain unclear. Furthermore, recent molecular biological studies have revealed that astrocytes are highly divergent under both resting and reactive states, whereas it has not been well reported how the communication between microglia and astrocytes affects astrocyte divergency during ischemic stroke. Minocycline, an antibiotic that reduces microglial activity, has been used to examine the functional roles of microglia in mice. In this study, we used a mouse photothrombotic ischemic stroke model to examine the characteristics of astrocytes after the administration of minocycline during ischemic stroke. Minocycline increased astrocyte reactivity and affected the localization of astrocytes in the penumbra region. Molecular characterization revealed that the induced expression of mRNA encoding the fatty acid binding protein 7 (FABP7) by photothrombosis was enhanced by the minocycline administration. Meanwhile, minocycline did not significantly affect the phenotype or class of astrocytes. The expression of Fabp7 mRNA was well correlated with that of tumor-necrosis factor α (TNFα)-encoding Tnf mRNA, indicating that a correlated expression of FABP7 from astrocytes and TNFα is suppressed by microglial activity.

Knockout of the P2Y6 Receptor Prevents Peri-Infarct Neuronal Loss after Transient, Focal Ischemia in Mouse Brain.

After stroke, there is a delayed neuronal loss in brain areas surrounding the infarct, which may in part be mediated by microglial phagocytosis of stressed neurons. Microglial phagocytosis of stressed or damaged neurons can be mediated by UDP released from stressed neurons activating the P2Y6 receptor on microglia, inducing microglial phagocytosis of such neurons. We show evidence here from a small trial that the knockout of the P2Y6 receptor, required for microglial phagocytosis of neurons, prevents the delayed neuronal loss after transient, focal brain ischemia induced by endothelin-1 injection in mice. Wild-type mice had neuronal loss and neuronal nuclear material within microglia in peri-infarct areas. P2Y6 receptor knockout mice had no significant neuronal loss in peri-infarct brain areas seven days after brain ischemia. Thus, delayed neuronal loss after stroke may in part be mediated by microglial phagocytosis of stressed neurons, and the P2Y6 receptor is a potential treatment target to prevent peri-infarct neuronal loss.

NLPR3 inflammasome inhibition alleviates hypoxic endothelial cell death in vitro and protects blood-brain barrier integrity in murine stroke.

In ischemic stroke (IS) impairment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) has an important role in the secondary deterioration of neurological function. BBB disruption is associated with ischemia-induced inflammation, brain edema formation, and hemorrhagic infarct transformation, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Dysfunction of endothelial cells (EC) may play a central role in this process. Although neuronal NLR-family pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome upregulation is an established trigger of inflammation in IS, the contribution of its expression in EC is unclear. We here used brain EC, exposed them to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) in vitro, and analyzed their survival depending on inflammasome inhibition with the NLRP3-specific drug MCC950. During OGD, EC death could significantly be reduced when targeting NLRP3, concomitant with diminished endothelial NLRP3 expression. Furthermore, MCC950 led to reduced levels of Caspase 1 (p20) and activated Gasdermin D as markers for pyroptosis. Moreover, inflammasome inhibition reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory chemokines, cytokines, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) in EC. In a translational approach, IS was induced in C57Bl/6 mice by 60 mins transient middle cerebral artery occlusion and 23 hours of reperfusion. Stroke volume, functional outcome, the BBB integrity, and-in good agreement with the in vitro results-MMP9 secretion as well as EC survival improved significantly in MCC950-treated mice. In conclusion, our results establish the NLRP3 inflammasome as a critical pathogenic effector of stroke-induced BBB disruption by activating inflammatory signaling cascades and pyroptosis in brain EC.

Functional roles of polyamines and their metabolite acrolein in eukaryotic cells.

Among low molecular weight substances, polyamines (spermidine, spermine and their precursor putrescine) are present in eukaryotic cells at the mM level together with ATP and glutathione. It is expected therefore that polyamines play important roles in cell proliferation and viability. Polyamines mainly exist as a polyamine-RNA complex and regulate protein synthesis. It was found that polyamines enhance translation from inefficient mRNAs. The detailed mechanisms of polyamine stimulation of specific kinds of protein syntheses and the physiological functions of these proteins are described in this review. Spermine is metabolized into acrolein (CH2 = CH-CHO) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by spermine oxidase. Although it is thought that cell damage is mainly caused by reactive oxygen species (O2-, H2O2, and •OH), it was found that acrolein is much more toxic than H2O2. Accordingly, the level of acrolein produced becomes a useful biomarker for several tissue-damage diseases like brain stroke. Thus, the mechanisms of cell toxicity caused by acrolein are described in this review.

C-Type Natriuretic Peptide Ameliorates Vascular Injury and Improves Neurological Outcomes in Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury in Mice.

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) is an important vascular regulator that is present in the brain. Our previous study demonstrated the innate neuroprotectant role of CNP in the neonatal brain after hypoxic-ischemic (HI) insults. In this study, we further explored the role of CNP in cerebrovascular pathology using both in vivo and in vitro models. In a neonatal mouse HI brain injury model, we found that intracerebroventricular administration of recombinant CNP dose-dependently reduces brain infarct size. CNP significantly decreases brain edema and immunoglobulin G (IgG) extravasation into the brain tissue, suggesting a vasculoprotective effect of CNP. Moreover, in primary brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), CNP dose-dependently protects BMEC survival and monolayer integrity against oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). The vasculoprotective effect of CNP is mediated by its innate receptors NPR2 and NPR3, in that inhibition of either NPR2 or NPR3 counteracts the protective effect of CNP on IgG leakage after HI insult and BMEC survival under OGD. Of importance, CNP significantly ameliorates brain atrophy and improves neurological deficits after HI insults. Altogether, the present study indicates that recombinant CNP exerts vascular protection in neonatal HI brain injury via its innate receptors, suggesting a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of neonatal HI brain injury.

miR-129-5p Ameliorates Ischemic Brain Injury by Binding to SIAH1 and Activating the mTOR Signaling Pathway.

Aberrant expression of microRNAs (miRNAs) has been linked with ischemic brain injury (IBI), but the mechanistic actions behind the associated miRNAs remain to be determined. Of note, miR-129-5p was revealed to be downregulated in the serum of patients with IBI. In silico prediction identified a putative target gene, siah E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (SIAH1), of miR-129-5p. Accordingly, this study plans to clarify the functional relevance of the interplay of miR-129-5p and SIAH1 in IBI. IBI was modeled by exposing human hippocampal neuronal cells to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in vitro and by occluding the middle cerebral artery (MCAO) in a mouse model in vivo. Apoptosis of hippocampal neuronal cells was assessed by annexin V-FITC/PI staining and TUNEL staining. The area of cerebral infarction was measured using TTC staining, along with neurological scoring on modeled mice. Loss of hippocampal neuronal cells in the peri-infarct area was monitored using Nissl staining. Downregulated miR-129-5p expression was found in OGD-induced hippocampal neuronal cells and MCAO-treated mice. Mechanistically, miR-129-5p was validated to target and inhibit SIAH1 through the application of dual-luciferase reporter assay. Additionally, enforced miR-129-5p inhibited the apoptosis of OGD-induced cells and decreased the cerebral infarct area, neurological scores and apoptosis of hippocampal neuronal cells by downregulating SIAH1 and activating the mTOR signaling pathway. Taken together, the results of this study reveal the important role and underlying mechanism of miR-129-5p in IBI, providing a promising biomarker for preventive and therapeutic strategies.

Effect of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene polymorphisms and oxidative stress in silent brain infarction.

Ischemic infarctions occur under the influence of genetic and environmental factors. In our study, the role of ischemia-modified albumin and thiol balance, which are new markers in determining oxidative damage together with MTHFR gene polymorphisms and homocysteine levels, in the development of SBI was investigated. White matter lesions in the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results of the patients were evaluated according to the Fazekas scale and divided into groups (Grade 0, 1, 2, and 3). Homocysteine, folate, B12, IMA, total thiol, and native thiol were measured by biochemical methods. The polymorphisms in MTHFR genes were investigated by the RT-PCR method. According to our results, a significant difference was found between the groups in age, homocysteine, folate, IMA, total thiol, and native thiol parameters (p < 0.05). When we compared the groups in terms of genotypes of the C677T gene, we found a significant difference in TT genotype between grades 0/3 and 1/3 (p < 0.05). We determined that homocysteine and IMA levels increased and folate levels decreased in CC/TT and CT/TT genotypes in the C677T gene (p < 0.05). Considering our results, the observation of homocysteine and IMA changes at the genotype level of the MTHFR C677T gene and between the groups, and the deterioration of thiol balance between the groups suggested that these markers can be used in the diagnosis of silent brain infarction.

Metabolic MRI with hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate separates benign oligemia from infarcting penumbra in porcine stroke.

Acute ischemic stroke patients benefit from reperfusion in a short time-window after debut. Later treatment may be indicated if viable brain tissue is demonstrated and this outweighs the inherent risks of late reperfusion. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate is an emerging technology that directly images metabolism. Here, we investigated its potential to detect viable tissue in ischemic stroke. Stroke was induced in pigs by intracerebral injection of endothelin 1. During ischemia, the rate constant of pyruvate-to-lactate conversion, kPL, was 52% larger in penumbra and 85% larger in the infarct compared to the contralateral hemisphere (P = 0.0001). Within the penumbra, the kPL was 50% higher in the regions that later infarcted compared to non-progressing regions (P = 0.026). After reperfusion, measures of pyruvate-to-lactate conversion were slightly decreased in the infarct compared to contralateral. In addition to metabolic imaging, we used hyperpolarized pyruvate for perfusion-weighted imaging. This was consistent with conventional imaging for assessment of infarct size and blood flow. Lastly, we confirmed the translatability of simultaneous assessment of metabolism and perfusion with hyperpolarized MRI in healthy volunteers. In conclusion, hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate may aid penumbral characterization and increase access to reperfusion therapy for late presenting patients.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of brain penetrant benzazepine-based histone deacetylase 6 inhibitors for alleviating stroke-induced brain infarction.

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) has become a promising therapeutic target for central nervous system diseases due to its more complex protein structure and biological functions. However, low brain penetration of reported HDAC6 inhibitors limits its clinical application in neurological disorders. Therefore, the benzazepine, a brain-penetrant rigid fragment, was utilized to design a series of selective HDAC6 inhibitors to improve brain bioavailability. Various synthetic strategies were applied to assemble the tetrahydro-benzazepine ring, and 22 compounds were synthesized. Among them, compound 5 showed low nanomolar potency and strong isozyme selectivity for the inhibition of HDAC6 (IC50 = 1.8 nM, 141-fold selectivity over HDAC1) with efficient binding patterns like coordination with the zinc ion and π-π stacking effect. Western blot results showed it could efficiently transport into SH-SY5Y cells and selectively enhance the acetylation level of α-tubulin with a moderate effect on Histone H3. Notably, pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that compound 5 (brain/plasma ratio of 2.30) had an excellent ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier of C57 mice. In male rats with transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), compound 5 significantly reduced the cerebral infarction from 21.22% to 11.47% and alleviated neurobehavioral deficits in post-ischemic treatment, which provided a strong rationale for pursuing HDAC6-based therapies for ischemic stroke.

Utility of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy for the Progression of Neurological Symptoms in Lenticulostriate Artery Territory Infarction.

OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1HMRS) in determining the progression of neurological symptoms resulting in acute ischemic stroke in patients with lenticulostriate artery (LSA) infarction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 1HMRS was performed within 72 h after neurological symptom onset. Voxel of interest was placed in tissue that included the pyramidal tract and identified diffusion weighted echo planar spin-echo sequence (DWI) coronal images. Infarct volume in DWI was calculated using the ABC/2 method. 1HMRS data (tNAA, tCr, Glx, tCho, and Ins) were analyzed using LCModel. Progressive neurological symptoms were defined as an increase of 1 or more in the NIHSS score. Patients who underwent 1HMRS after progressive neurological symptoms were excluded. RESULTS: In total, 77 patients were enrolled. Of these, 19 patients had progressive neurological symptoms. The patients with progressive neurological symptoms were significantly more likely to be female and had higher tCho/tCr values, higher rates of axial slices ≥ 3 slices on DWI, higher infarct volume on DWI, higher maximum diameter of infarction of axial slice on DWI, and higher SBP on admission compared to those without. Multivariable logistic analysis revealed that higher tCho/tCr values were independently associated with progressive neurological symptoms after adjusting for age, sex, and initial DWI infarct volume (tCho/tCr per 0.01 increase, OR 1.26, 95% CI 1.03-1.52, P = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS: Increased tCho/tCr score were associated with progressive neurological symptoms in patients with LSA ischemic stroke. Quantitative evaluation of 1HMRS parameters may be useful for predicting the progression of neurological symptoms.

Aß (Amyloid Beta) and Tau Tangle Pathology Modifies the Association Between Small Vessel Disease and Cortical Microinfarcts.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: There is increasing recognition of the importance of cortical microinfarcts to overall brain health, cognition, and Alzheimer dementia. Cerebral small vessel pathologies are associated with microinfarcts and frequently coexist with Alzheimer disease; however, the extent to which Aß (amyloid beta) and tau pathology modulates microvascular pathogenesis is not fully understood. Study objective was to examine the relationship of small vessel pathologies, arteriolosclerosis, and cerebral amyloid angiopathy, with cortical microinfarcts in people with differing levels of Aß or tau tangle burden. METHODS: Participants were 1489 autopsied older people (mean age at death, 89 years; 67% women) from 1 of 3 ongoing clinical-pathological cohort studies of aging. Neuropathological evaluation identified cortical Aß and tau tangle burden using immunohistochemistry in 8 brain regions, provided semiquantitative grading of cerebral vessel pathologies, and identified the presence of cortical microinfarcts. Logistic regression models adjusted for demographics and atherosclerosis and examined whether Aß or tau tangle burden modified relations between small vessel pathologies and cortical microinfarcts. RESULTS: Cortical microinfarcts were present in 17% of older people, moderate-to-severe cerebral amyloid angiopathy pathology in 36%, and arteriolosclerosis in 34%. In logistic regression models, we found interactions with Aß and tau tangles, reflecting that the association between arteriolosclerosis and cortical microinfarcts was stronger in the context of greater Aß (estimate, 0.15; SE=0.07; P=0.02) and tau tangle burden (estimate, 0.13; SE=0.06; P=0.02). Interactions also emerged for cerebral amyloid angiopathy, suggesting that the association between cerebral amyloid angiopathy and cortical microinfarcts is more robust in the presence of higher Aß (estimate, 0.27; SE=0.07; P<0.001) and tangle burden (estimate, 0.16; SE=0.06; P=0.005). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that in the presence of elevated Aß or tangle pathology, small vessel pathologies are associated with greater microvascular tissue injury, highlighting a potential link between neurodegenerative and vascular mechanisms.

Salvianolate lyophilized injection regulates the autophagy-lysosomal pathway in cerebral ischaemia/reperfusion rats.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Activation of autophagy has been implicated in cerebral ischiemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Salvianolate lyophilized injection (SLI) has been widely used in the clinical treatment of cerebrovascular disease in China. Whether SLI has any influence on the activation of autophagy in cerebral I/R injury remains elusive. AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of this study were to assess whether SLI attenuates I/R-induced brain injury and evaluate its associated mechanisms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Focal cerebral ischaemia was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). SLI (21 mg/kg) was injected intravenously at the beginning of the reperfusion period and 24 and 48 h after ischaemia. The effects of SLI on brain injury were detected according to infarct volume, neurological score, brain oedema, and HE and TUNEL staining at 72 h post-MCAO. Western blotting was used to detect alterations in the autophagy-relevant proteins LC3, Beclin-1, mTOR, p62, Lamp-1, and CTSD in the ipsilateral cortex at 24 or 72 h post-MCAO. RESULTS: We first demonstrated that SLI significantly alleviated the infarct volume, neurological deficits, and brain oedema, and reduced the number of TUNEL-positive cells in rats with cerebral I/R injury. Next, we found that SLI has a bidirectional regulatory effect on autophagy: early-stage (24 h) cerebral ischaemia promotes the activation of autophagy and developmental-stage (72 h) cerebral ischaemia has an inhibitory effect. SLI enhanced I/R-induced autophagy as evidenced by the increased expression level of the autophagy marker protein LC3Ⅱ, as well as the decreased expression of mTOR and the autophagy substrate protein p62, but there was no change in lysosomal activity at 24 h after I/R-induced injury. Moreover, SLI also inhibited excessive activation of autophagy at 72 h after I/R-induced injury, which manifested as downregulating LC3Ⅱ expression, upregulating mTOR and p62 expression, and inhibiting lysosomal activity. CONCLUSION: SLI has a protective effect on cerebral ischaemia/reperfusion injury, which may be mediated by the autophagy-lysosome pathway.

Protective effect of grape seed extract and orlistat co-treatment against stroke: Effect on oxidative stress and energy failure.

Ischemic stroke is a major health concern and a leading cause of mortality worldwide. Oxidative stress is an early event in the course of stroke inducing neuro-inflammation and cell death. Grape seed extract (GSE) is a natural phytochemical mixture exhibiting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Orlistat (ORL) is an anti-obesity agent and a gastro-intestinal lipase inhibitor which showed recently beneficial effects on brain lipotoxicity. Recent studies reported the increase of lipase activity upon stroke which led us to investigate the neuroprotective effect of ORL on rat brain I/R injury as well as the putative synergism with GSE. I/R insult infarcted the brain parenchyma as assessed by TTC staining, induced an oxidative stress as revealed by increased lipoperoxidation along with alteration of antioxidant enzymes activities which was corrected using the cotreatment of ORL + GSE. I/R also disturbed the main metabolic pathways involved in brain fueling as glycolysis, neoglucogenesis, glycogenolysis, TCA cycle and electron transfer chain (ETC) complexes. These disturbances were also corrected with the cotreatment ORL + GSE which maintained energetic activities near to the control level. I/R also disrupted transition metals distribution, along with associated enzymes as tyrosinase, LDH or glutamine synthetase activities and induced hippocampal inflammation as revealed by glycogen depletion from dentate gyrus area along with depressed anti-inflammatory IL1ß cytokine and increased pro-inflammatory CD68 antigen. Interestingly almost all I/R-induced disturbances were corrected either partially upon ORL and GSE on their own and the best neuroprotection was obtained in the presence of both drugs (ORL + GSE) enabling robust neuroprotection of the sub granular zone within hippocampal dentate gyrus area.

H2S prevents peripheral immune cell invasion, increasing [Ca2+]i and excessive phagocytosis following hypoxia-ischemia injury in neonatal mice.

We previously reported that L-Cysteine, H2S donor, remarkably attenuated neuroinflammation following hypoxia-ischemia (HI) brain injury in neonatal mice. However, its anti-inflammatory mechanism for HI insult is still unknown. The study focus on the effects of L-Cysteine on immune cell populations, Ca2+ mobilization and phagocytosis after neonatal HI. We found that L-Cysteine treatment skewed CD11b+/CD45low microglia and CD11b+/CD45high brain monocytes/macrophages towards a more anti-inflammatory property 72 h after HI-injured brain. Moreover, L-Cysteine treatment reduced cerebral infiltration of CD4 T cells 7 days following HI insult. Furthermore, CD4 T cell subset analysis revealed that L-Cysteine treatment decreased Th1 and Th2 counts, while increased Th17/Th2 ratio. Moreover, L-Cysteine treatment suppressed LPS-induced cytosolic Ca2+ and LPS-stimulated phagocytosis in primary microglia. The anti-inflammatory effect of L-Cysteine was associated with improving neurobehavioral impairment following HI insult. Our results demonstrate L-Cysteine treatment suppressed the invasion of peripheral immune cells, increasing [Ca2+]i and excessive phagocytosis to improve neurobehavioral deficits following hypoxia-ischemia injury in neonatal mice by H2S release.

RTN1-C mediates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury via modulating autophagy.

It has been widely accepted that autophagic cell death exacerbates the progression of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Our previous study revealed that overexpression of reticulon protein 1-C (RTN1-C) is involved in cerebral I/R injury. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been studied intensively. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of RTN1-C on autophagy under cerebral I/R. Using an in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation followed by reoxygenation and a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion model in rats, we found that the expression of RTN1-C protein was significantly upregulated. We also revealed that RTN1-C knockdown suppressed overactivated autophagy both in vivo and in vitro, as indicated by decreased expressions of autophagic proteins. The number of Beclin-1/propidium iodide-positive cells was significantly less in the LV-shRTN1-C group than in the LV-shNC group. In addition, rapamycin, an activator of autophagy, aggravated cerebral I/R injury. RTN1-C knockdown reduced brain infarct volume, improved neurological deficits, and attenuated cell vulnerability to cerebral I/R injury after rapamycin treatment. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that the modulation of autophagy from RTN1-C may play vital roles in cerebral I/R injury, providing a potential therapeutic treatment for ischemic brain injury.

D-Carvone inhibit cerebral ischemia/reperfusion induced inflammatory response TLR4/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

To explore the present treatment strategies for ischemic stroke lowered by ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, to hypothesize the effect of d-Carvone on cerebral I/R brain injury induced neuroinflammation through oxidative stress markers mechanism via NRLP3 and TLR4 marker expressions in rat model. The rats were divided into four groups: Sham, I/R vehicle, I/R + D-carvone (10 mg/kg/bw), I/R + D-carvone (20 mg/kg/bw). Supplementation of d-carvone at dose of 10 and 20 m/kg/bw increased the water content, reduced infract volume, attenuated neurological score depicts, furthermore it had antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects against cerebral I/R brain injury. In the brain tissues decreased proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and TNF-α reduced interleukins IL-6, IL-4, IL-10 & VEGF dose dependently, and mRNA expressions of NLRP3, caspase -1, TNF-α, ASC, IL-1ß and TLR3 down regulated in cerebral I/R induced rats. Finally d- carvone can successfully improve the cerebral I/R induced rats neuroinflammation, in the hippocampus and cortical areas of the brain finally reduces cerebral I/R induced injury. These results were hypothesized that d-carvone contributed to cerebral stroke associated with the TLR3, giving an excellent therapeutic approach for cerebral I/R brain injury.